Identification of high-wind features within extratropical cyclones using a probabilistic random forest – Part 2: Climatology over Europe

Abstract

Abstract. Strong winds associated with extratropical cyclones are one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Europe. These high winds are mostly associated with five mesoscale features: the warm (conveyor belt) jet (WJ); the cold (conveyor belt) jet (CJ); cold frontal convection (CFC); strong cold-sector (CS) winds; and, in some cases, the sting jet (SJ). The timing within the cyclone's life cycle, the location relative to the cyclone core and further characteristics differ between these features and, hence, likely also their associated forecast errors. In Part 1 of this study (Eisenstein et al., 2022a), we introduced the objective and flexible identification tool RAMEFI (RAndom-forest-based MEsoscale wind Feature Identification), which distinguishes between the WJ, CFC and CS as well as CJ and SJ combined. RAMEFI is based on a probabilistic random forest trained on station observations of 12 storm cases over Europe. Being independent of spatial distribution, RAMEFI can also be applied to gridded data. Here, we use RAMEFI to compile a climatology over 19 extended winter seasons (October–March 2000–2019) based on high-resolution regional reanalyses of the German Consortium for Small-scale Modelling (COSMO) model over Europe. This allows the first ever long-term objective statistical analysis of the mesoscale wind features, including their occurrence frequency, geographical distribution and characteristics. For western and central Europe, we demonstrate that the CS is prominent in most winter storms, while CFC is the least common cause of high winds, both in terms of frequency and affected area. However, probably due to convective momentum transport, CFC is on average the cause of the highest gusts after the CJ and has the highest gust factor. As expected, CFC high-wind areas show high levels of humidity and overcast conditions. In contrast, the CS is characterised by sunnier conditions interspersed by patchy cumulus clouds, leading to a broader cloud cover distribution than for other features. The WJ produces the weakest winds on average but affects a larger area than CJ. Central Europe is more strongly affected by WJ and CFC winds, while the CJ usually occurs farther north over the North and Baltic seas, northern Germany, Denmark and southern Scandinavia. System-relative composites show that the WJ and CFC tend to occur earlier in the cyclone life cycle than the CJ and CS. Consistently, the CS is the most common cause of high winds over eastern Europe, where cyclones tend to occlude, represented by a narrowing warm sector and weakening cold front. The WJ mostly occurs within the south-eastern quadrant of a cyclone bordered by the narrow CFC in the west. However, the location of CFC varies greatly between cases. The CS occurs in the south-western quadrant, while the CJ appears closer to the cyclone centre, sometimes stretching into the south-eastern quadrant. This objective climatology largely confirms previous, more subjective investigations but puts these into climatological context. It allows a more detailed analysis of feature properties and provides a solid foundation for model assessment and forecast evaluation in future studies.