1. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, Department of Engineering and Public Policy, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, and Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, 949 Benedum Hall, 3700 O’Hara Street, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260