Atmosphere-Transported Emerging and Persistent Contaminants (EPCs) in Rainfall and Throughfall: Insights from a Rural Site in Northern Thailand

Abstract

This study investigates the presence and concentrations of emerging and persistent contaminants (EPCs) in rainwater and throughfall water collected from urban areas and agricultural lands in northern Thailand. It focuses on one daily-use compound (caffeine), two industrial compounds (4-nitrophenol and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBEP)), and three agrichemicals (atrazine, fenobucarb, and 2,4-D). Additionally, information is provided regarding the presence of acetaminophen, fexofenadine, diphenhydramine, and gabapentin. Small differences in the chemical composition of the six main contaminants were observed between rainwater and forest throughfall water. However, significant variations were found in the concentration ranges of each EPC. In most cases, throughfall samples exhibited slightly higher concentrations, suggesting a limited contribution from dry deposition compared to rainfall. Limited reliable evidence was found concerning seasonal patterns in EPC concentrations in precipitation (rainfall and throughfall) and surface water samples in remote ponds and reservoirs. The transportation of EPCs via rainwater appears to vary among the compounds tested and is likely to vary from one rainfall event to another, rather than showing a strong and common seasonal response within the monsoon rainfall regime. These findings suggest that the transport of EPCs to remote areas via rainfall does occur for some EPCs. However, the dominance of this process over other transport mechanisms could not be determined with high confidence.