Opal, cristobalite, and tridymite: Noncrystallinity versus crystallinity, nomenclature of the silica minerals and bibliography

Abstract

Cristobalite and tridymite are distinct forms of crystalline silica which, along with quartz, are encountered in industrial operations and industrial products. Because the International Agency for Research on Cancer has designated “crystalline silica” asanIARCGroup 2A (probable carcinogen)and quartz and cristobalite as aGroup 1 (carcinogen), it is important to properly identify and quantify the silica phase in all materials used in production and encountered in products. Opal is a form of hydrated silica which is also encountered in industry. Although some forms of opal mimic cristobalite and tridymite, they are not truly crystalline. The term “silica” in the industrial sense is used to mean any material whose composition isSiO2whether it is crystalline or noncrystalline. Some people also consider silica to include hydratedSiO2. There are many forms ofSiO2which have both long-range and short-range order and are recognized as crystalline phases among which are quartz, cristobalite, and tridymite. The hydrated silicas, on the other hand, pose an enigma. Only a few forms show sufficient long-range and short-range order to be considered crystalline. The mineral silhydrite is an example. Opal in all its forms lacks sufficient order to be considered crystalline. Even opal-C, which produces a X-ray pattern similar to the diffraction pattern of cristobalite, lacks not only sufficient order to be considered crystalline but also contains water in the structural make-up. This paper discusses a classification and nomenclature for these forms which is critical to proper regulation. It also reviews the recent literature on tridymite, cristobalite, and opal, and provides an extensive bibliography. Modern studies have shown that opal-A is disordered, but opal-CT and opal-C contain ordered domains that mimic stacked sequences of cristobalite and tridymite sheets such that X-ray patterns show features similar to the crystalline cristobalite and tridymite. There is debate on whether the ordered regions have lost the water that characterizes the opals. In fact, heating studies have shown that all opals show changes on heating characteristic of materials that lose water in the process. The TEM evidence showing domains in the range 10–30 nm in a matrix of disordered opal suggest that the proper term for this system isparacrystallineanalogous to inorganic and organic polymers.